Zoroaster Essay Example For Students

Zoroaster Essay Two of the three major monotheistic religions today are Judaism and Christianity. Upon taking a closer look at these western religions one cant help but notice a common thread running through all three. The ideas of one omniscient God (hence monotheism) and final judgment, resulting in spending an eternity in heaven or hell, are ever present. How do these largely practiced belief systems have so much in common? Who is responsible for creating the basic ideology of millions of believers today? The answer to these questions may lie in a man who lived nearly twenty-six hundred to possibly three and a half thousand years ago. Zoroastrians are the followers of the Achaemenian prophet or priest Zarathustra (or Zoroaster as the Greeks called him). (For clarification, I will use present day Iran in place of the Achaemenian Empire). Due to invasions of Iran and the destruction of their libraries, there are no sources to pinpoint the time frame of Zoroasters life. According to documents that s urvived the eradications, Zoroaster flourished 258 before Alexander Alexander the Great sacked the Iranian capitol in 330 BC, dating the prophets birth circa 628 BC, while some scholars estimate his life around 1400 BC. Where Zoroaster was born and lived is almost as uncertain as when he lived. Arab scripts state that Zaratusht arose from Ragh which researchers have concluded as Rhages, or present day Tehran Iran. The area in which he lived had an economy based on animal husbandry. Nomads who frequently raided those people were viewed by Zoroaster as of order and called them followers of the lie. So begins the basis of Zoroasters theology. We will write a custom essay on Zoroaster specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now To understand the overwhelming effect Zoroastrianism had on the people of the ancient Middle East, one must take a look at their belief system. Iran, as well as the entire Middle East, was a land where many pagan gods and goddesses were being born. During the time of Zoroaster, Mithra was one prominent religion practiced by the Iranians. Those who were followers of Mithra (as well as other religions) would sacrifice animals to pay homage to their gods. It wasnt uncommon for worshippers to consume narcotics and intoxicating beverages called Haoma (Zaehner 38). This is a one reason why Zoroaster revolted against Mithra and other Iranian religions before him. Zoroaster had received a vision from Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, who appointed him to teach the truth. Initially Zoroaster did not try to overthrow current religions, yet placed Ahura Mazda as the Head God. Through his attempts to slowly reform ancient Iranian religion, Zoroaster was opposed in his monotheistic teachings and princi ples by religious authorities in the area that he preached. His enemies were the established civil and religious heads who wanted no part in the undoing of the ancient national religions, which had strong ties in the existing social and economic structures. Zoroaster testifies: Where and which part of land shall I go succeed? They keep me away from the family and the tribe. The community that I wish to join does not gratify me, nor do the deceitful tyrants of the land. How shall I gratify you, O Ahura Mazda? (Clark 3) It can be deduced that he was persecuted by religious and civil leaders and in turn escaped his homeland. Researchers indicate that Zoroaster appealed to one of the great leaders of his time called King Vishtaspa (the great grandson of Xerxes of Greece) (Princeton 83). The king along with a few others, (who included some family), became followers and began spreading the word of Zoroastrianism. The basis of Zoroasters teachings seems to revolve around the idea that all events in the world are based on cause and effect. He has based his teachings on three principles: good reflection, good word and good behavior. Zoroaster believed that all the motives of human beings are based on action and reaction. Therefore, if human beings act favorably, they will in turn receive favorable actions and vice versa. Zoroasters god was not a god who was neither a bribe taker nor a dealer. Ahura Mazda, as told by Zoroaster, did not need to be flattered by his creatures in ritualistic sacrifices (Zaehner 85); neither did he need to be bought with bribes of expensive offerings. (Wadia 53-56) The god of Zoroaster is a god of justice, kindness and truthfulness. Ahura Mazda, in turn, guides his people to practice the same principles, because no man is more worthy than the other. That is why Zoroaster has based his theology on good reflection, good word and good deed. Contrary to some religions pra cticed at that time, Zoroastrians are not predetermined in their fate to either eternal happiness or everlasting damnation.According to the Avesta (Zoroasterian scripture) everybody has the liberty to choose the right or wrong. This idea of free will may have taken root in the home community of Zoroaster as described in the Gathas (Zoroastrian hymns). The Gathas tells the story of a peaceful pastoral and cattle breeding society (presumably Zoroasters), which was constantly raided by fierce nomadic tribes. The latter Zoroaster constantly refers to as dregvants (the followers of the Lie) where as his own people are the ashavants (the followers of Truth). (Zaehner 34) Zoroastrianism proposes an ethical dualism, implying a radical choice made between good and evil, exemplified by these two spirits (dreg and asha) (Clark 9) Yet not only does Zoroaster present an ethical dualism, but also a religious one as well. The monotheistic basis of Zoroasters teaching appears to be dualistic. Ahura Mazda appears to have an opposing (evil) force. Contrary, Zoroaster taught that in the beginning there was a meeting of two spirits, who were free to choose life or not life. This original choice gave birth to a good (Spenta Mainyu) and an evil (Angra Mainyu) principle. Monotheism, however, prevails over ethical and religious dualism because Ahura Mazda is actually comprised of both spirits, who were divided into the two opposed principles through their own choice and decision pitted in an eternal struggle. (Clark 6-10)At the beginning of time, the world was divided into the dominion of the good and of the evil. Between these, each man is bound to decide. From mans freedom of decision he alone is responsible for his fate. Through his good deeds, the righteous person earns an everlasting reward. He who opts for evil is condemned by Ahura Mazda and must expect to descend to the Christian concept of hell. Ahura Mazda is said to eventually vanquish the spirit of evil. This is done in s imilar fashion as the Christian religion, were there is a final internal confrontation where the good spirit, Spent a Mainyu, destroys the evil spirit. Zoroasters monotheistic solution had replaced the idea of dualism. (Zaehner 54-57)Not many stories have been recorded about teachings that Zoroaster supplied to his followers. Zoroastrianism had eventually grown popular among the Iranian people but had still received opposition from other religious heads. Several attempts were made by opposing religions to uproot the new theology. Some religious leaders tried to discredit the Zoroastrians by accusing them of being fire worshippers. Zoroaster didnt believe in anthropomorphism, so he chose to symbolize his god with fire. Zoroaster considered light and fire to be the cleanest phenomona in the earth therefore he chose them to be the symbol of Ahur Mazda. Unfortunately, some people out of wickedness or mere misunderstanding regarded Zoroastrianism as a fire-worshipping religion. The accus ations not only damaged the theological basis, but also put holes in followers faith. Even today the followers of Zoroaster are ridiculed as fire worshipers. (Waida 47, Clark 93)Zoroasters death appears to be as sketchy as his birth. Currently there are several possible accounts of the prophets death. Two are relatively similar in effect, but vary in minuet detail. One account states that he was murdered by a rival priest while attending to his regular rituals. The other recorded possibility is that Zoroaster was slain along with other priests by the rival priests (Kavis) during a raid on a Zoroastrian sanctuary. Not all texts make a claim for a violent death. One researcher reports that Zoroasters departureto the best existence, when seventy-seven years had elapsed onwards from his birth. (Clark 24) Bartering for gaining power through the name of God and sacrificing of animals, where both large sources of income for other religious leaders. Zarathustras three principles of good ref lection, good words, and good deed; lead to eternal life. Therefore, there was no need for religious leaders to assume the role of mediator between God and people like other religions. Zarathustra beliefs even deprived the clergies from temples that they had built. As these priests were deprived of their followers and money they developed animosity toward Zoroasterianism. After Zoroasters death, priests of other religions incorperated Ahur Mazda to their own religions in hopes of winning Zoroasters people and money.In this manner the religion of Mithra became so popular in Iran that even King Xerxes (of Greece) was worshiping Mithra next to Ahur Mazda. A century later, improper behavior on the part of Alexander of Macedonia resulted in ordering his army to set fire to libraries of Iran. The destruction of didactic literature is why history in that area is so ambiguous. Due to continued persecution and undo hardships, Zoroastrians were scattered throughout the Middle East. Zoroasters philosophy was transferred person to person and has caused many alterations that may not be inline with true Zoroastrianism. .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .postImageUrl , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:hover , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:visited , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:active { border:0!important; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:active , .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152 .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0bc198e451358fc184e140cd80714152:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Is ethical theory applicable to practice EssayWhat direct effects Zoroastrianism had on later Judaeo-Christian religions cannot be said for certain. Zoroasters doctrine of rewards and punishments, of an eternal bliss and an eternity of woe allotted to good and evil men in another life beyond the grave is so strikingly similar to (Judeo-Christian) teaching that we cannot fail to ask whether here at least there is not a direct influence at work. For the similarities are so great and the historical context so neatly apposite that it would be carrying skepticism altogether too far to refuse to draw the obvious conclusion. (Zaehner 57) Since Zoroastrianism was developed somewhe re between 100 900 years before Judaism and Jews had direct interaction with Iranians, it can be concluded that Iranians influenced the Jews, especially in the ways of religion.It can be said then that Zoroastrianism was the basis for Christianity as well as Judaism, since Judaism held the founding principles for Christianity. Bibliography:

buy custom Cancer of the Cervix essay

buy custom Cancer of the Cervix essay Introduction Cervical cancer is the cancerous infection that occurs as a result of abnormal growth of cells on the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that is connected to the upper portion of the birth canal. Cervical cancer is the second most common and fifth most deadly disease in women globally. In 2008 it was approximated that there were roughly 473,000 cases of cervical cancer (Blaustein Kurman, 2002). The annual deaths were at 253,500. This paper explores the pathological events that lead to infection of cervical cancer, its consequences, the related risk factors of the disease, signs and symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of the disease. Pathological events leading to Cervical Cancer Pathological studies that have been conducted demonstrate that cervical cancer develops as a result of the abnormal growth in the cervical tissue. The main cause of the cancer is the human papilloma virus (HPV). This virus is transmitted from one person to the other through sexual contacts (Shah Rohan, 2004). The vulnerability is increased in women that have early sexual contacts and more than one sexual partner. These often lead to the development of cervical-related lesions that may later grow to become cancerous. The Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) exists in various types. However, not all of the viruses cause cervical cancer. On the same note, one can have the HPV for several years without knowledge. However, results of the research conducted on cervical cancer indicate that 70% of cervical cancer globally is caused by HPV (Human Papilloma Virus). This virus can stay in the body and cause cancerous infection several years later. This explains the recommendations of the medical practitioners that women should undertake Pap tests as frequently as possible so that any changes in the cervical cells can be detected and treated before they develop to be cancerous (Blaustein Kurman, 2002). Pap smear remains to be the commonest screening test for cervical cancer. However, confirmation of the diagnosis of the cervical cancer needs a biopsy. This is done through the use of colposcopy (Singer Monaghan, 2000). If not detected and treated early enough, cervical cancer can spread out to the bordering organs like the kidney, the renal tract and the birth canal. The survival rate for women diagnosed with cervical cancer is almost 100% if the precancerous changes in the cervix are detected and treated early. However, the success of treatment of invasive type of cancer is largely dependent on the stage of detection. Thus, the stage at which cervical cancer is screened, detected and treated determines the success and survival of the patient (Shah Rohan, 2004). For the earliest stages of cancer of the cervix, that is 0, 1A, approximately 90% of women are able to prolong their lives by at least five years. The later stages of development of cervical cancer are relatively challenging to effectively deal with. At this stage, only 20% or fewer patients survive (Shah Rohan, 2004). This is the same case with the stage IV of a developed cancer of the cervix. Risk Factors of Cervical Cancer The most common risk factor for getting cervical cancer is sexual activity. The risk is based on the association of cervical cancer with the human papilloma virus (HPV). This virus is transmitted through sexual contact with a person that has contracted it. This is particularly linked to the squamous cell cervical cancers (Shah Rohan, 2004). Therefore women who have multiple sex partners are greatly exposed to the risk of contracting cervical cancer. This risk remains if the women are in sexual relationship with a man who has sexual contacts with other partners (Rosdahl Kowalski, 2008). The cancer of the cervix is common in women who have been celibate throughout their lives. Such women are exposed to the risk of an adenocarcinoma cancer of the endocervix. However, on a general note, all sexually active women are at risk of developing cancer of the cervix (Blaustein Kurman, 2002). The risk of development of the cervical cancer is compounded further by smoking and sexual promiscuity on the part of the woman or her male sexual partner. Lack of regular Pap smear screenings also exposes women to the risk of developing cervical cancer. Those who are commonly diagnosed with cervical cancer are women who have not had regular and consistent screening of cervical cancer through Pap smear test (Shah Rohan, 2004). The risk factor that cervical cancer puts patients to include spread of the disease to other body tissues, organs and cells. For example, as the disease develops, it is growing to affect the neighboring tissues and organs such as the rectum, the lymphatic system, the birth canal, kidneys and even the liver (Shah Rohan, 2004). This can be very fatal for the patient. Cervical cancer puts pregnant women at a great risk of spontaneous miscarriage especially if the cervix is manipulated or biopsied in the first trimester of the pregnancy. In some cases women diagnosed with cervical cancer can be rendered infecund. This happens when the treatment procedures require total pelvic removal. In such cases, the uterus, tubes, ovaries, bladder, colon and the vagina are all removed. Such surgical procedures would thus leave the woman permanently infertile. Of all the risks associated with cervical cancer the most dreaded one is the painful reality that eventually the patient has to succumb to dea th if the disease was not detected early enough and treated. Diagnosis of Cervical Cancer The progress that has been made in diagnosis of cervical cancer is by use of Pap smear. This should be a regular process that involves examination of the pelvis. Cells that are on the surface of the cervix are collected and examined on a slide. In order to diagnose cervical cancer, a biopsy is taken for analysis under a microscope. The biopsy is usually examined by specially trained physician who is experienced in the diagnosis of diseases through examination of body cells and tissues. Shah Rohan (2004) cited that cervical cancer is also diagnosed through colposcopy. This is an examination procedure that involves the use of a special microscope known as colposcope to examine the cervix (Shah Rohan, 2004). For this to be done, the entire cervix is stained with a dye that is not harmful so as to enhance visualization of abnormall cells with clarity. Another method for diagnosis of cervical cancer is the use of the loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP). This involves the use of an electrified wire that is looped to pick samples of tissue from the cervix. This is often done by a gynecologist. Signs and Symptoms of Cervical Cancer The signs and symptoms of cervical cancer are evident only in the advanced stages of the disease. For women in their post-menopause ages, the clear sign of the disease is the abnormal bleeding (Issah, 2010). In the advanced stages cervical cancer causes abnormal vaginal discharge. Most patients diagnosed with cervical cancer also complain of pelvic pain that is persistent and not related to other normal conditions of menstruation. Issah (2010) writes that pain can range from a dull ache to sharp pains that can be lasting for several hours. In some cases women with cervical cancer may experience abnormal pain during vaginal coitus. Besides, patients diagnosed with the disease often complain of pain during urinal discharge. This is a symptom for advanced cervical cancer. Further, increased frequency of urination and urinary infection can be an indication of a developing cancer. Treatment of Cervical Cancer Cervical cancer may be treated by use of radiation especially in stages where surgery cannot be done. Biopsy and LEEP (loop electrosurgical excision procedure), though diagnostic procedures, can sometimes be used as treatment procedures as well (Rosdahl Kowalski, 2008). These procedures involve examination of a section of the cervical tissue for detection of the disease. This will then inform the practitioner whether the disease needs further examination or the best possible treatment approach that can be adopted. Treatment of cervical cancer can also be done through the use of cryocautery. This treatment procedure uses a steel instrument that is cooled to subzero temperature. This is done through immersion of the instrument in liquid nitrogen (Shalini, Chitrathara Amita, 2012). The intra-cooled instrument is thereafter applied to the cervical surface to freeze cells to the death. Once cells are dead they are sloughed-off and replaced by new cells of cervix. Infected tissues can al so be treated through laser ablation. This involves application of a laser beam to the specific areas of the tissues or its entire surface. This laser destroys the affected cells and leaves healthy cells in their place (Singer Monaghan, 2000; Shalini et al, 2012). However, success of cryocautery or laser ablation depends on followed follow-up examination such as the application of Pap smear. Conclusion The pathology, risk factors, prognosis, diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer is a medical field that continues to attract scholarly research. However, the progress that has been made in this field indicates that cervical cancer still remains the greatest threat to women who are sexually active. The easiest and commonest screening procedure is the Pap smear. Although much effort has been made to contain the disease, the greatest level of success has been witnessed in protection and not treatment. Much more investigation is thus warranted. Buy custom Cancer of the Cervix essay

The New Woman in Kate Chopin's the Awakening Essay

The New Woman in Kate Chopin's the Awakening - Essay Example This means that for almost half a century before Kate Chopin published The Awakening, society had been engaged in a struggle over equal rights issues and social ideologies. As an outcome of this struggle, female part of the society had, to some extent, already undergone mobilization and emancipation from their socioeconomic captivity. The following research is to review and analyze on the example of Kate Chopin's novel about the "sexual awakening" and an unconventional behavior of a woman how for the first time in the USA, women began to bring the formerly private issues of family and home into the public domain and this way caused significant social changes. As many biographers admit today, writing a story of another person's life story is writing one's own as well. If we try to find out why Kate Chopin wrote her novel and how the society accepted it, we will often find the answers in the French women the voices of whom dominated Chopin's formative years. Many historians note that women during the post-Civil War period regularly took part in the marketplace, earned their own sources of support, broke with derogatory forms of financial dependency on men. Culley M. asserts that women "at all levels of society were active in attempts to better their lot, and the "New Woman", the late nineteenth-century equivalent of the "liberated woman", was much on the public mind" (Culley 117). In middle 1899, nearly 50 years after the women's movement officially had started, the social and cultural background seemed favorable for the literary introduction of Edna Pontellier, Kate Chopin's fictional character. The plot of the novel can be depicted in short as follows. The main character, Edna Pontellier is 28 years old, married to a 40-year-old New Orleans businessman who earn living for her and their two sons. She is satisfied but not really happy. During one summer at Grand Isle, a charming Creole resort, she has several awakenings. A real romance occurs between Edna and the resort owner's young son, Robert Lebrun, after he teaches her swimming and she gets the feeling of power and sensuality. Meanwhile, Edna makes friends with Madame Adle Ratignolle, a woman who is fully contented in her traditional woman role, but whose affectionate ways and insights draw Edna to speculate about herself and learn striking things. Being a motherless child and an intellectual Edna now realizes that she has married Lonce Pontellier only in order to annoy her family, and to close the door on unreal obsessions and dreams. She realized that she became a mother without particularly wish to be one, and did not raise that question until that moment. During Edna's summer of awakenings she starts, with the help of her female friends, recovering her voice. The peculiar, slightly sinister pianist Mademoiselle Reisz develops Edna's deep appreciation for music and inspires her flirtation with Robert, who, suddenly leaves for Mexico. After coming back home Edna begins to ignore her wifely obligations. Listening to her own inner voice, Edna starts expressing opinions, and while she is ecstatically alone, organizes a luxurious dinner party before moving herself to a little house. Later on Edna has

Shamanism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shamanism - Essay Example These tales take on a legendary, epic nature. In communities that continue the shamanic traditions, narratives with shamanic protagonists serve to establish a communal code of conduct, providing a narrative model of idealized and stigmatized shamanic behaviors. They constitute a native discourse on the nature, efficacy, and dangers of shamanic practices. A practitioner's power can be described and also enhanced by such tales. Examples of such narratives can be found in Knud Ramussen's (1921) Eskimo Folk Tales. One typical story is that of Kuniseq who sets out on a spirit journey to the land of the dead with a spirit helper. The landscape is described as a slippery reef, changing into a field of heather, providing visual imagery for a better understanding of the nature of the spirit world. Kuniseq meets some children and his mother who tries to kiss him and offers him berries which he refuses, as one should never eat in the land of the dead if one intends to remain with the living. In general, the tale provides a comforting representation of the land of the dead and the supporting role of the spirit helper. When Kuniseq dies soon after this journey, it is to be happily reunited with his deceased kin. The tale illustrates the shaman's familiarity with the spirit world, emphasizing his competence and also provides information on the other world of interest to listeners. Not only does the tale provide valuable cosmological information, it also underscores the efficacy of the angakok to fulfill the task of supplyinf information on the cosmos that would otherwise be unavailable to ordinary members of the community and presents the shaman as a true Inuit hero. Q2. In the cultural encounters between shamanic traditions and other religions or systems the former have often been vilified and condemned. Shamans have been tortured and persecuted as was reported of U.S. Navy Commander Henry Glass in his dealings with the Tlingit people in the 1890s. But even more subtle methods of discrediting and suppressing shamanic worldviews exert pressure on practitioners over time. Intercultural and interfaith confrontations can lead to the marginalization of the shaman figure, which did not necessarily enjoy total acceptance in the first place, and was sometimes regarded as a source of misfortune and suspicion even in the shaman's own cultural context. As the community evolves toward more complex systems of organization and the religious tradition becomes more firmly institutionalized with a fixed doctrine, the marginalization of the shaman can increase. Religions undergo transformation reflecting the changes in norms and circumstances of their ambient soc ieties. Combined with external pressure and systematic suppression, particularly from missionizing religious traditions with strong doctrinal components and the superiority of the aggressors, the cultural context of the shamanic community can change to such an extent that a shift occurs and the religious beliefs predominant in the community change. There may or may not be vestiges of the old traditions remaining in form of certain rephrased rituals, or mystical figures. The shaman is gradually superseded by or transformed into the priests elected and trained by established religious institutions. An internal decline in the belief in the importance of shamanic rituals can be the result of external influences and the encroachment of alternative worldviews. State- sponsored efforts as in Soviet Russia, or

Factors Affecting Consumers

Factors Affecting Consumers The topic of this study, namely factors affecting consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars in Malaysia. Hybrid cars are developed to reduce the level of gas emissions into the air and increase fuel economy. As fuel prices rise to the point where many consumers can no longer afford to drive as much as they once have, automobile manufacturers have been faced with many new challenges. Hybrid car are very similar to the gasoline powered automobile most people drive today, the difference is the hybrid cars on the road right now are gasoline-electric hybrids. Many gas powered hybrids are and will be in the available in market today and some that will be coming to Malaysia, that include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Toyota Prius, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid and etc. However, there are very few hybrid cars is to be seen in Malaysia. Only 327 hybrid cars were sold in 2010 (Ahmad, 2011) and 297 total units sold in the whole 2009 (Mahalingam, 2011). BACKGROUND OF STUDY To investigate the relation between independent variables which are price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, consumers environmental consciousness and dependent variable which is consumers purchasing behavior in purchasing a hybrid car. This research study is to examine the association of the independent variables that impulse buying behavior of consumers on purchasing a hybrid car in Malaysia. RESEARCH PROBLEM The innovation of the fuel efficient and environmental friendly hybrid vehicles is becoming popular nowadays. Today, many consumers include Malaysians are becoming more sensitive to rising oil prices and becoming more environmentally friendly, Malaysians are considering the option to buying hybrid vehicles which that can saves them money and make a positive impact on our environment. A research is conducted to find out the consumer behavior of Malaysians and to investigate the factors affecting the consumers purchasing decision of hybrid cars. The questions arise are: Will customers consider hybrid cars are actually worth the money they spend? Will the rising of oil prices leads them to pay more attention to a cars fuel economy? Does the design of the hybrid cars affect their purchasing decision? Does the removal of excise duty for hybrid cars affect their purchasing decision? Or will their environmental consciousness suggest the purchasing of a hybrid car. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The main objective is to find out the factors that affect consumers purchasing decision of hybrid cars in Malaysia. Through the application of many new and innovative technologies, the hybrid is an extremely efficient vehicle that also significantly reduces emissions. As a result, hybrid vehicles have been gaining in popularity because they are cheaper and consumer enjoys numerous incentives for purchasing a hybrid vehicle. However, the prices of hybrid vehicles in Malaysia are far more expensive compared to the prices in other foreign countries. RESEARCH QUESTION This study is only going to focus on the determinants of consumers purchasing decision of hybrid car in Malaysia. How price of the hybrid cars influence consumers purchasing decisions? What is the relationship between the design of the car and the influence it posses to consumers during decision making to purchase? Does excise duty on hybrid cars affects consumers purchasing decision? How a cars fuel economy will influence the purchasing decisions of consumers? Will a consumers environmental consciousness plays a role in their decision making to purchase a hybrid car? 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY Our study focused on the factors that affect consumers purchasing decision of hybrid cars. This study will determine whether price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness will affect consumers decision to purchase hybrid cars. It is important to find out how a consumer is willing to pay for a hybrid car and to know will the design; fuel efficiency and the removal of excise duty on hybrid car influence their purchase decision. There are consumer who will buy a hybrid car because it can save fuel and money, but there are consumers who are not willing to pay a high price for the hybrid car as well. It is crucial to determine the perspective of consumers since they are the end users of products and services. Hence, this study is important to analyse the various factors that influences consumers idea on purchasing, so that it is easy for manufacturers to take vital decisions to fulfill the demand of the consumers. 1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY This study will be focusing on the factors affecting consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars in Malaysia. The study also focuses mainly on the automobile manufacturers such as Toyota and Honda. Nowadays, vehicles serve as a very important role in our current society where everyone needed transportation to continue their daily lives. Acquiring a car nowadays is considered a necessity, compared to the past where it was considered a luxury (CorpeduCar, 2010). At present time, a car has become our need for easier and faster transportation and to be on time with our daily activities (Harvey, 2011). Surveys have been done by individuals as it is always a best and direct way to obtain opinions from the consumers. This research will be focusing on generation X and Y. Survey questions to understand more about consumers behavior on purchasing a hybrid car will be distributed to consumers from generation X and Y. Generation X and Y were born between the years in 1960 till around 2000 according to Mark Winburn (2010) (as cited in White, 2010, p.4). This study carries out for respondents who are living in Peninsular Malaysia. Consumers from generation X and Y, being the largest generational demography is more concern about the looks and price of the vehicles. Full of gleaming sports cars and eco-friendly vehicles aimed at consumers from generation X and Y. (White, 2010) 1.8 ORGANISATION OF REPORT Chapter 1 This chapter shows the definition of the topic which is about hybrid cars. The factors affecting consumers purchasing decision of hybrid car is examined by using the independent variable that are price, design, excise duty, fuel economy and environmental consciousness. We tend to understand the problems before we conduct our research. After understanding the research problem, we conduct 5 objectives to study on. Chapter 2 We focus on literature review for this chapter. We define the terms of our research variables and also describe further about how and why is these variables related to this research. Chapter 3 For this chapter we are focusing on research methodology. Operational definition of research variable is done in this chapter. Besides that, we did some hypothesis in this research and also the description of the sources use in the research data. After that we describe about the sampling design of our research and also defining the instrument and measurement used in the research. Lastly is to explain how data is analyzed. Chapter 4 This chapter shows the results of the research. In this chapter we include descriptive analysis or demographic analysis and mean analysis. After that we did the normative test to every research variable. Then, we test hypothesis we did earlier end finally, we end up by doing the regression analysis. Chapter 5 This chapter shows some discussion and conclusion of the research. Besides that it shows the suggestion for future, limitation of study and etc. 1.9 SUMMARY In this introduction, a brief overview is given about hybrid cars. This chapter has also identified the research problem and research objectives for this study. The independent variables and research questions are stated for this study. The next chapter gives a more detailed explanation and a literature review for the topic. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 INTRODUCTION This study finds out factors that influence consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. Through this research, there are five variables that influence consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars which are pricing, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness. The purpose of this study is to determine the factors that affect consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. In this chapter, literatures from past researchers are cited to support and explain the given variables in this study. 2.2 OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter will provide a description of the literature relevant to this study. This research seeks to examine the influence of price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness on consumers purchasing decisions. A theoretical framework will show the independent variables and dependent variables that is explained through this chapter as well as giving an overview of what has been reviewed by past researchers. 2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Figure 2.1 Factors that affects consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars Independent Variable Dependent Variable Price Purchasing Decision H1 Design H2 Excise Duty H3 Fuel Economy H4 Environmental Consciousness H5 Source: Adapted for this study 2.4 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Price Price is one of the variables in this research. Product price are demonstrated to be the variables affecting consumers decisions. According to Chang (2009), price plays several roles in consumers purchasing decision making. For example, price can be an indicator of the degree of perceived sacrifice needed to purchase a product and an indicator of the level of quality. A higher perceived price leads to higher perceived quality and consequently to a greater willingness to buy. At the same time, the higher perceived price represents a monetary measure of what must be sacrificed to purchase the product, leading to a reduced willingness to buy. Consumers purchase decision are affected by price, a particular product may seem too expensive at its regular price, but a good value when it is discounted. Similarly, consumers will be motivated to shift to another brand or use a product less with an increase in price (Litman, 2004). Consumers make their choice, based on the information regarding all the products available on the market and price is an important factor of decision making (KazaKevitch, Torlina Hendricks, 2005). Price is always an important attribute in the decision-making process (Hermann et al., 2007; Lalwani Monroe, 2005; Chang, 2009; Webb, 2011). Playing a more complex role than often attributed to it, price has been a determining factor in consumer choice (Monroe, 1990; Chang, 2009). Consumers remembered information on past and present price and are able to acquire complete information on the attributes of products being considered as options, the objectives of which are to minimize the price paid (Chang, 2009). Progressive Insurance and NADA conducted a poll shows 46% respondents stated that price is still number one concern in their most important new-car attributes ranking (Bryant, 2006). In an interview showed that car buyers indeed consider price an important factor in their purchase decisions (Herrmann, Xia, Monroe Huber, 2007, p.51). In an analy sis of consumers willingness to buy a hybrid car, the purchase price would influence the willingness to buy according to (Tanaka et al.) as cited in (Kishi Satoh, 2005). A study published in UK found as many as 71% of customer said that price was the most important factor that influences car purchase (Bikash, Pravat Sreekumar, 2010, p.51). In a survey of 1,524 adults by the Japanese motoring organization JAF, 61% said it was important that the car was economical (JAF, as cited in Okamura Cairns, 2003). Consumers in Generation Y are concerned with price and getting a good value (Wolf, Carpenter Petrela, 2005). Most of the interviewees in the study conducted by Webb (2011) are very price conscious and that price is an extremely important factor and is the bottom-line when purchasing a product. The biggest concerning factor for purchasing a product was determined to be price (Webb, 2011). Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that price is one important component in influencing consum ers purchasing decisions taken by all age groups, including young adults on hybrid cars. By referencing the existing literature on price, it is hypothesised that: H0: There is no relationship between the price of hybrid car and consumers purchasing decision. H1: There is a relationship between the price of hybrid car and consumers purchasing decision. Design Design is one of the variables in this research. Consumers have expectations when buying a product. Through what consumers have acquired from their cultural environment, consumers motivation to buy and even to pay a high price is based on a value judgment, like and dislikes of a sociological and psychological nature. In Webb (2011) studies, majority of respondent in strongly agree (UK-31%, US-39%, Other-38%) and agree (UK-48%, US-46%, Other-46%) that the design of the product is a considering factor when buying. According to Jung et al. (2010), it is known from consumer surveys that the design of cars greatly influences on consumers affection and therefore leads to their purchasing decisions. Additionally, Jung et al. (2010) study provides a basis of understanding underlying consumers affection in terms of user-centered design. In order to improve consumers affection and influencing their purchase decisions as consumer spends more and more time in cars, manufactures are developing in terior design requirements to achieve positive results (Cho, 2005; Jung et al., 2010). There are hundreds of designs available on the market and it is difficult for consumers to choose one that catches their interest. Therefore, a cars body design plays a very influential factor (Hagemann, 2011). Dull and ugly cars do not sell, consumers will not be attracted to design that just does not look particularly good at all (Cato, 2009). Designs have a certain positive causal relationship with purchase intention indirectly and are important factors affecting purchase decision. Therefore, automobile manufacturers should consider designing heterogeneously and individually for vehicles to satisfy consumers fashion and individual needs on the basis of the quality assurance (Wang Li, 2010). In Nielsen (2010) online survey, the Nielsen Company looked at the factors most important to consumers when choosing new cars in the current economy. Surprisingly, 85% will consider buying if the new car we re available now and met the key requirements such as design, dependability and durability. 12% of the respondents will consider buying the hybrid car if it had a unique design that set apart from existing car models. Design adds value to the product, giving it distinction to attract consumers who are more focused on the design and brand name. By far, price is a big indicating factor within any demographic group for buying products, alongside with the design of the product itself (Webb, 2011). Marketers should design the brand or product to match the way consumers understand, utilise, and emotionally connect themselves to a product. Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that design is one of the important factors in influencing consumers purchasing decisions. By referencing the existing literature on design, it is hypothesised that: H0: There is no relationship between the design of a hybrid car and consumers purchasing decision. H2: There is a relationship between the design of a hybrid car and consumers purchasing decision. Excise Duty Excise duty is a tax or sometimes called duty in its simplest form and it is defined as levy and collection of duty on manufacture of goods (Kanak, 2002). Excise is imposed on consumption that is discouraged by the government such as alcohol and cigarettes, the production or sale of certain goods, normally luxury items as well as on gasoline and other fuels. On the other hand, excise is considered an indirect tax, meaning that the producer or seller who pays the tax to the government try to recover the tax by raising the price paid by the buyer. The Websters New International Dictionary, as mentioned in Kanak (2002), excise duty is any duty, toll, tax or an inland duty or impost levied upon the manufacture or sale or consumption of commodities within the country or tax upon pursuit of certain sports, trades, or occupations usually taking this in the form of fees or licenses. In Malaysia, excise duty is imposed on automobiles. Cost is a major barrier to adoption. For example, a Toyota Prius is priced slightly under RM 180,000 before excise duty exemption. As cars are more of a necessity these days, overpriced cars are inhibitive for consumers. Before the exemption of excise duty, hybrid cars are considered expensive. Although they dont cost as much as a sports car but they are by no means cheap for consumers. In Malaysia, existing taxes on cars, particularly excise duties are high. Excise duties should be exempted by the government for all hybrid cars if they are serious about encouraging hybrids (Yeoh, 2010). The government decision to grant full excise duty exemptions on hybrid vehicles below 2,000cc until year end that had been announced during the tabling of Budget 2011 in October 2010 had lower the prices of hybrid cars. Public awareness of the benefits of hybrid cars has picked up considerably with lower price after excise duty waiver, and with that, sales of such cars has increased (Mahalingam, 2011). Toyota Prius is priced at RM 139,900 in Peninsular Mal aysia after full exemption of excise duty which lasts till the end of 2011, makes it an attractive proposition for Malaysian drivers (Standing a hybrid apart, 2011). Excise duty exemption on hybrid cars is like a shot in the arm to this vehicle segment (Mahalingam, 2011). The spike in demand for hybrids has been fuelled primarily by the Governments decision under Budget 2011 to grant full excise duty exemptions on hybrid cars below 2,000cc unti Dec 31, 2011. Representative from UMW Toyota stated that the company had received over 470 bookings for Toyota Prius and 946 bookings for the Honda Insight since the Governments budget announcement (Mahalingam, 2011). Since the Government announced the exemption of excise duties (at Budget 2011) last year, demand for hybrid cars have shot up, said MAA President Datuk Aishah Ahmad in Mahalingam (2011) news article. The sales of hybrid cars had risen and consumers in Malaysia are more aware of the benefits of hybrid cars since the exemption of excise duty. Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that exemption of excise duty on hybrid cars is one of the important factors in influencing consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. By referencing the existing literature on excise duty, it is hypothesised that: H0: There is no relationship between excise duty and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. H3: There is a relationship between excise duty and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. Fuel Economy Fuel economy refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance travelled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed. Fuel economy indicates how far a vehicle travels on a unit of fuel. Fuel economy is one of the variables in this study. When it comes to making their final decision about which vehicle to buy, fuel economy is one of the factors that consumers focus on. Fuel economy is the number one factor driving consumer decisions about green vehicles (named by 57% of respondents) and more respondents in China and the U.S. pointed to fuel economy (Dixit et al., 2009). According to the 2008 Advanced Automotive Features Study, it is reveals that some 38% respondents indicate that they would sacrifice vehicle performance for better fuel economy (Fuel economy, 2008). Eighty percent of consumers surveyed by the latest research from ExchangeandMart.com.uk in Fuel efficiency (2011) article said that a cars fuel efficiency directly affects their purchasing decision. Consumer Reports, 2009 in Jeffrey Gonder (2011) article found that prospective vehicle buyers listed fuel economy as a top factor of interest. Power Asia Pacific, (2010) found improved customer satisfaction with auto dealers in cases where those dealers provided advice for maximizing fuel economy when driving (Jeffrey Gonder, 2011). This further supports the thesis that consumers have some interest in fuel economy with the right encouragement. Increasing fuel economy standards encourages greater automobile use by reducing the cost per kilometre travelled (Thorpe, 1997; Agostini, 2010). Due to fuel price increases, consumers purchase more fuel efficient vehicles (Litman, 2004). A report comes from Market Intelligence research performed by the online arm of Kelley Blue Book reports that fuel economy has become a much more important part of the criteria buyers use to select their next vehicle (Bain, 2011). In the midst of escalating concerns about the dangers of greenhouse gas emissions, enviro nmentalists hailed the superior fuel economy and wide range of the hybrid-electric engine as a critical breakthrough that could help save the environment without inconveniencing consumers (Thatchenkery, 2008). According to a survey by the Consumer Federation of America, fuel economy ranks near the top in consumer priorities in general (Zhuang, 2009). The survey found that 76% of customers intend to buy a vehicle with fuel economy averaging five miles per gallon greater than the mileage of their current vehicle. Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that fuel economy is one of the important factors in influencing consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. By referencing the existing literature on excise duty, it is hypothesised that: H0: There is no relationship between fuel economy and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. H4: There is a relationship between fuel economy and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. Environmental Consciousness Environmental conscious can be known as affective traits that can signify an individuals likings, dislikes, worries and consideration about the environment (Yeung, 2004; Sinappan Rahman, 2011). The consumers spending pattern and preference has been growing and changing over time. People nowadays are more aware of the environmental issues. Generally, consumers tend to have a positive attitude towards green purchasing when they are aware of the environmental issues (Sinappan and Rahman, 2011). According to Soonthonsmais study in (Sinappan Rahman, 2011), a green consumer is defined as consumers who are conscious of and interested in ecological issues. All products and services that have environmental impact are put into their considerations and these consumers initiative is to reduce them to the minimum. As mentioned in Sinappan Rahman (2011), few studies were done on environmental consciouness (Barr et al., 2003; Milfont and Duckitt, 2004). The study done by Lee as cited in (Sinappa n Rahman, 2011) among Hong Kongs young consumers revealed that environmental consciousness is the 2nd top predictor of green purchasing behaviour. This result is consistent with Sinappan Rahman (2011) study where environmental consciousness is the 3rd top predictor of green purchasing behaviour. Consumers who have high concern on the environment often consider on how the quality of the environment can be improved and they would definitely engage themselves in buying environmentally friendly products, such as a hybrid car. According to KÃ ¶szeghy, (2004), a study performed in the United States levels of consumers environmental consciousness was identified. There are the true-blue greens who are firmly environmentally conscious persons, exhibiting this in their actions. They crisply refuse products of firms having doubtful environmental performance and give preference to environment friendly products. Greenback greens are the youngest and best educated people who support environmen talism with money rather than with any action or their time. These are wealthy people, ready to pay extra cost for environment friendly products. Demand for environment friendly products appears among environmental conscious consumers. The quality of the environment is important, which is taken into considerations in their purchase decision. Firms should take segments formed by the level of consumers environmental consciousness into account in their decision making process (KÃ ¶szeghy, 2004). Business today had changed, they are acknowledging that being environmentally conscious is being competitive and green products provide competitive advantage (Introduction to Environmental, 2006). Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that environmental consciousness is one of the important factors in influencing consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. By referencing the existing literature on environmental consciousness, it is hypothesised that: H0: There is no relationship between environmental consciousness and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. H5: There is a relationship between environmental consciousness and consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. 2.5 DEPENDENT VARIABLES Purchasing Decision The purchasing decision process is a stage that a buyer passes through in making decisions about which product or service to buy. Every day consumers are faced with purchasing decision. A better understanding of how consumers decide what to purchase is critical to the success of a product. Purchase decision occurs when the consumer actually makes the purchase. It includes the product, method of payment, package, location of purchase and all other factors that are associated with purchasing the product (Wolf, n.d). It is insufficient to understand how consumers arrive at their purchase decision because there are personal, psychological and social factors that influence the purchase decision. Understanding of these factors is essential to effectively market products. In this study, we focused on five variables, which are price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness as the factors that affect consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. As mentioned in the literature review, these five factors are reviewed and explained on how they affect consumers purchasing decision. This is important to marketers and they need to understand clearly about their consumer to be able to market their product with a good understanding of these purchasing decision processes. 2.6 ITEMS OF MEASUREMENTS 2.6.1 Price 2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE Table 2.1 Summary of literature Dimension Authors Price Chang, 2009; Litman,2004; KazaKevitch, Torlina Hendricks, 2005; Hermann et al., 2007; Lalwani and Monroe, 2005; Webb, 2011; Monroe, 1990; Bryant, 2006; Herrmann, Xia, Monroe Huber, 2007; Kishi Satoh, 2005; Bikash, Pravat Sreekumar, 2010; Okamura Cairns, 2003; Wolf, Carpenter Petrela, 2005 Design Webb, 2011; Jung et al., 2010; Hagemann, 2011; Cato, 2009; Wang Li, 2010; Nielsen, 2010 Excise Duty Kanak, 2002; Yeoh, 2010; Mahalingam, 2011; Ahmad, 2011 Fuel Economy Dixit et al., 2009; Jeffrey Gonder, 2011; Agostini, 2010; Litman, 2004; Bain, 2011; Thatchenkery, 2008; Zhuang, 2009 Environmental consciousness Yeung, 2004; Sinappan and Rahman, 2011; Barr et al., 2003; Milfont and Duckitt, 2004; KÃ ¶szeghy, 2004; Lee, 2008 Source: Adapted for this study 2.7 SUMMARY The five variables, which are, price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness plays an important role in consumers purchase decision. This study explored the five variables, which are, price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness by referencing the existing literature on how they affect consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars. On the previous research, price plays an important role in purchasing an automobile. Price is always an important attribute in the decision-making process. Designs have a certain positive causal relationship with purchase intention indirectly and are important factors affecting purchase decision. It is known from consumer surveys that the design of cars greatly influences on consumers affection and therefore leads to their purchasing decisions. With a lower price after excise duty waiver, public awareness of the benefits of hybrid cars has picked up considerably and leads to more sales. Fuel economy h as become a much more important part of the criteria buyers use to select their next vehicle. In business today, environmentally conscious is being competitive and it provides competitive advantage. The quality of the environment is important, which is taken into considerations in consumers purchasing decision. Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 INTRODUCTION The main objective of this research was to determine the factors affecting consumers purchasing decision on hybrid cars in Malaysia. In this chapter, various topics was discussed includes hypotheses development, research design, sampling technique, sources of data, scales and measurement, questionnaire design, data collection method, and statistical data analysis. After identifying the various independent variables, a hypothesis to test the validity of the relationship with dependent variable was developed. Next, the research design and sources of data were also elaborated. As this study was using the survey method of questionnaires, therefore the sampling technique, questionnaire design and measurement was in explained detailed. Finally, data collection method and statistical data analysis was also explained. 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE 3.2.1 Type of study This study will take place in urban areas in Malaysia where transportation is a necessity for consumers to travel around from place to place. Consumers like working adults who need vehicle to go to work and travelling in the urban area are more concern about the vehicles they drive. 3.2.2 Nature of study This study found that design was positively correlated with price. Consumers have expectations when buying a product. Consumers motivation to buy and even to pay a high price for a product is based on value judgment. Value can and has been added in several different ways. For example, through recognizable mark or signature of the designer that can add value to the product. Another way to adding value is through symbolic capital, which refers to the enhancement or the power that emanates from the designers name, which in turn evolves into a signature, mark or brand of the designer or manufacturer. Design adds value to the product, give it distinction. As a result, consumers are willing to pay a premium for the product. Independent variables in this study which are price, design, excise duty, fuel economy, and environmental consciousness are all positively correlated to the dependent variable, which is purchasing decision. Consumers concern of the price and whether the product is worth what they paid for. This brings a positive relation that influenced consumers p

Paul Strand :: essays research papers

Key Figures 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1936 Strand joined with Berenice Abbot to establish the Photo League in New York 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strand was the first photographer to acheive a really decisive break with pictorialism and apply some of the lessons of the new modern art to photography. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul Strand was born in New York and attended the Ethical Culture School where his teacher was Lewis Hine. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strands later work moved toward a documentary approach, attempting to encapsulate a feeling a place and its people in a body of work, published in book form. The most successful of these dealth with rural communities such as the Hebridean Islands or a village in the Italian South. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strands work was published in the last two issues of Camera Work and the pictures marked a turning point for photography. Laslo Moholy-Nagy 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teacher at the Bauhaus School in Germany. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establishes the New Bauhaus at the Chicago Institute of Design. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Used straight photography and photomontage. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Disorienting Images. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Experimented with stage design and photography. Man Ray 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Surrealist 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Made dreamlike images 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His revolutionary nude studies, fashion work, and portraits opened a new chapter in the history of photography. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  he was enthusiastically welcomed into Dadaist and Surrealist circles 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Man Ray experimented tirelessly with new photographic techniques, multiple exposure, rayography, and solarization being some of his most famous. John Heartfield 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Original name Helmut Herzfeld 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  German Dadaist. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pushed the idea of using massprinted source material by inventing the photomontage. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  practice social criticism 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wasn’t allowed to express himself in Germany during Hitler’s time. Aleksandr Rodchenko 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aimed to make the familiar strange. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wanted to challenge or provoke the viewer. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Valued technology 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Style : close ups, unusual vantage points, tilted his camera. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Was born in Russia. Edward Weston 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Photographing natural landscapes and forms such as peppers, shells, and rocks, using large-format cameras and available light 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  produced sensuously precise images raised to the level of poetry. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He became successful working in a soft-focus, Pictorial style, winning many salon and professional awards. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1920 he was experimenting with semi-abstractions in a hard-edged style. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  own portrait studio between 1911 and 1922 in Tropico, California. Eugene Atget 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  first of photography's social documenters 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His images of Paris are perhaps the most vivid record of a city ever made. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  sold 2500 negatives relating to the history of Paris, a large portion of the work he had been accumulating for two decades, to the Caisse National des Monuments Historiques. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  some of his photographs were in the magazine La revolution surrealà ­ste.

Music Appre.

The Strings Introduction Almost every culture in history has featured string instruments as part of their musical life and heritage. However, regardless of their origin, string instruments share one common characteristic: a string stretched between two points to produce the sound. Strings may be plucked, strummed, bowed, rubbed, or otherwise manipulated in order to produce vibration. Although any one of these techniques may be applied to a particular string instrument, different instruments have traditionally been played using just one or two of these techniques.For example, guitars are strummed or plucked rather than played with a bow (i. e. bowed) whereas the opposite is true of the cello or the violin, for which strumming and plucking are used to a much lesser degree. When playing traditionally bowed instruments, string players control dynamics by applying more or less bow pressure and speed to the strings. The ability to produce a high level of volume is particularly important wh en a solo string instrument needs to be heard above a large ensemble, as happens (for example) in a concerto for violin and orchestra.Vibrato, from the Latin vibrare (â€Å"to shake†), is another interesting instrumental technique used by string players. It consists of a quick back and forth movement or rocking of the finger that is in contact with the string, with the intent of producing a fluctuation of pitch for expressive purposes. As with any other type of instrument, string instruments vary widely in terms of size, shape, and number of strings. However, there are groups of string instruments that share similar construction and instrumental technique characteristics.One of these groups is the set of instruments that form the backbone of the traditional symphony orchestra. Comprising the string section of the orchestra, they share the following characteristics: †¢Similar shape and construction. †¢Played with a bow. †¢The body of the instrument amplifies the sound. The Strings From left to right: violin, viola, cello, double bass Four members of the string section The four main orchestral string instruments are (from highest to lowest pitch): the violins (usually divided into two sections, playing individual parts), the violas, the cellos, and the double basses.Each have four strings arranged in order of pitch and may be played by means of a bow (arco) or plucked (pizzicato). Whereas the violin and viola are played with the instrument resting between the shoulder and the chin, the larger cello (or, to give it its full title, violoncello) is placed between and slightly behind the knees facing outwards, and the bulky double bass is played standing up or seated on a high stool. The way we refer to performers of instruments is derived from the name of the instrument itself.Thus, we speak of violinists, violists, cellists, bassists, guitarists, and harpists, to name a few. The harp may be a part-time fifth member of the orchestral strings, although it doesn't share the common characteristics listed above. Audio-Visual Gallery Now, click on the images below to hear the timbre of some well-known string instruments. Acoustic Guitar Picture Courtesy of Yamaha Hollow Electric Guitar Picture Courtesy of Yamaha Viola Picture Courtesy of Graffiti Harp Cello Violin Bass Famous string music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Violin Concerto No. in B-flat major, K 207 Samuel Barber Adagio for Strings Peter Illych Tchaikovsky Serenade Melancolique, Op. 26 Johann Sebastian Bach Cello Suite No. 1 in G major William Walton Viola Concerto: Vivo con molto preciso †¢Examine the ways in which sound is produced in string instruments. †¢Examine the characteristics that string instruments share. †¢Differentiate between the four main orchestral string instruments. †¢Define the following musical terms: bow, bowing, double Bass, cello, harp, pizzicato, plucking, string family, strumming, vibrato, violin, viola, violoncello.